civil war coins: 49BCCaesar's decision to cross the Rubicon in 49 BC sparked off a civil war between the remaining two Triumvirs. The coins issued in this year provide good evidence of the rhetoric evinced by Caesar and his opponents.
There is a clear contrast between the minting practices of Caesar and Pompey; while Caesar only minted a single type in 49 BC, the issue was a large one, advertising his position and imminent victory. Pompey's supporters employed more coin types, but minted these in smaller quantities, and none alluded to the contemporary situation of civil war. RRC 441/1 Obverse: Head of Saturn right with harpa over shoulder; before, NERI·Q·B downwards. Border of dots. Reverse: Legionary eagle; on left, standard of maniple of hastati; on right, standard of maniple of principes; on left, L·LE upwards; on right, C·MARC upwards; below, CO S. Radiate border.
This coin minted in Rome by Cn. Nerius (Quaestor Urbanus at the time) shows on the reverse a legionary eagle and military standards, alluding to the fact that the coin may have been struck for military purposes.
RRC 443/1 Obverse: Elephant right, trampling dragon; in exergue, CAESAR. Border of dots. Reverse: Pontifical emblems – culullus, aspergillum, axe and apex. Border of dots.
The issue was produced by a mint moving with his army. The reverse of this coin alludes to Caesar's position as Pontifex Maximus, while the obverse shows an elephant trampling a dragon or a snake, with the legend CAESAR in the exergue. The specific meaning of this reverse image is debatable. Babelon (1885/6 vol 2:10ff) identified the dragon as a sign referring to the Germans and concluded that the coin showed the victory of Caesar over the Germanic tribes. Crawford (1974:735) believed that it symbolised victory over evil. Backendorf (1998:210ff) argued that the snake and elephant represented the beginning of the civil war, since Romans believed the snake and the elephant were constantly at war with each other. Pliny noted that snakes and elephants come from India and that there is a continual feud between them; “in this duel both combatants die together, and the vanquishing elephant in falling crushes with its weight the snake coiled round it” (Pliny, NH 8.32). Backendorf believed the animals might allude to Pompey and Caesar. The elephant also had strong associations with Alexander the Great and it is quite possible that Caesar wished to allude to the great conqueror.
RRC 440/1 Obverse: Head of Fortuna Populi Romani right, wearing diadem; before, FORT downwards; behind, P·R upwards. Border of dots. Reverse: Palm-branch tied with fillet and winged caduceus, in saltire; above, wreath; below, Q·SICINIVS; on either side, III VIR. Border of dots.
The Republican politicians (optimates) were certainly confident of victory at the beginning of the war (Cicero de. imp. Pomp 45). Q. Sicinius, a moneyer who joined the side of Pompey, issued this coin, probably early in 49 BC) showing on the obverse the head of Fortuna Populi Romani (the Fortune of the Roman People) and on the reverse symbols of victory and felicitas (good fortune).
RRC 445/3b Obverse: Head of Jupiter right. Border of dots. Reverse: Artemis of Ephesus facing; on right, L·LENTVLVS downwards; on left, C·C·COS upwards. Border of dots.
While Pompey himself did not strike coinage, his supporters struck coins throughout 49 BC, using mints that travelled with the general. Coins were struck for Pompey by the moneyer Q. Sicinius, the praetor C. Coponius, the consuls L. Lentulus and C. Marcellus, the proquaestors Cn. Piso and Varro and an anonymous quaestor). In large part these coins display deities and, in the tradition of Roman Republican coinage, allude to the previous exploits of each moneyer's family. Gods included Apollo, Hercules, Artemis and the head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter. The coins do not specifically allude to any precise Pompeian cause.
RRC 447/1 Obverse: Bust of Jupiter right, wearing diadem; behind, VARRO•PRO•Q downwards. Border of dots. Reverse: Sceptre upright; on left, dolphin; on right, eagle; in exergue, MAGN•PRO• COS. Border of dots.
The presence of some of the gods on these coins can be explained by the location of Pompey when they were minted. For example, this coin shows Jupiter on the obverse and cult statue of the Ephesian Artemis on the reverse is perhaps a reflection of the fact that the coins were minted in Asia, near Ephesus. Likewise, a coin of Pompey showing Apollo (RRC 445/2) seems to indicate that the mint was located at Apollonia.
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DOcumentaries
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Murder in Rome - Sextus Roscius
Cicero is up against one of the finest prosecutors in the city - Erucius. The facts seem simple: Roman gentleman Sextus Roscius has been stabbed in the street. It's an apparently motiveless killing. None of his valuables were stolen. The prime suspect is the old man's son. Sextus Roscius Junior had means, motive and opportunity. It seems like an open and shut case. But Cicero's brilliant out-of-court detective work is about to dazzle the Roman courts for the first time. By the time he has finished, not only is Sextus Junior absolved, but Cicero has unmasked a conspiracy that goes to the top of Roman society. |
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Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire Episode 2 - Spartacus (History Channel)
A thirteen hour series which focuses on the Germanic, Britannic and other barbarian tribal wars with Rome which ultimately led to the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. This episode focuses on the revolt of Spartacus and the consequences for Rome. |
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Spartacus: Behind the Myth
It began with a breakout from a prison kitchen; it became a civil war. Based on the latest research, this dramatised documentary reveals how around 70 men armed themselves with kitchen knives and roasting spits, and chose a man called Spartacus as their leader. People came to join them in their thousands, and within a matter of months, the fugitive band was an army 100,000 strong. Strong enough to threaten the destruction of Rome. This film tells the story of a modern, dirty war of propaganda, psychological warfare and guerrilla tactics fought two thousand years ago. And it reveals the true character of Spartacus, a ruthless and charismatic leader very different to the figure created by two thousand years of myth-making. |
Written sources.
"But when he learned the truth, and perceived that everybody was sallying forth to welcome Pompey and accompany him home with marks of goodwill, he was eager to outdo them. So he went out and met him, and after giving him the warmest welcome, saluted him in a loud voice as "Magnus," or The Great, and ordered those who were by to give him this surname. Others, however, say that this title was first given him in Africa by the whole army, but received authority and weight when thus confirmed by Sulla. Pompey himself, however, was last of all to use it, and it was only after a long time, when he was sent as pro-consul to Spain against Sertorius, that he began to subscribe himself in his letters and ordinances "Pompeius Magnus"; for the name had become familiar and was no longer invidious."
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"But when the will of Caesar was opened and it was found that he had given every Roman citizen a considerable gift, and when the multitude saw his body carried through the forum all disfigured with its wounds, they no longer kept themselves within the restraints of order and discipline, but after heaping round the body benches, railings, and tables from the forum they set fire to them and burned it there; then, lifting blazing brands on high, they ran to the houses of the murderers with intent to burn them down, while others went every whither through the city seeking to seize the men themselves and tear them to pieces"
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"When, however, Pompey and Crassus openly announced their candidature, the rest took fright and withdrew from the contest; but Cato encouraged Domitius, who was a kinsman and friend of his, to proceed, urging and inciting him to cling to his hopes, assured that he would do battle for the common freedom. For it was not the consulate, he said, which Crassus and Pompey wanted, but a tyranny, nor did their course of action mean simply a canvass for office, but rather a seizure of provinces and armies. "
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"From that time on Caesar managed all the affairs of state alone and after his own pleasure; so that sundry witty fellows, pretending by way of jest to sign and seal testamentary documents, wrote "Done in the consulship of Julius and Caesar," instead of "Bibulus and Caesar," writing down the same man twice, by name and by surname. Presently too the following verses were on everyone's lips:—
"In Caesar's year, not Bibulus', an act took place of late; For naught do I remember done in Bibulus' consulate." |
"In regard to my political position, I have resumed what I thought there would be the utmost difficulty in recovering - my brilliant standing at the bar, my influence in the senate, and a popularity with the loyalists even greater than I desired. In regard, however, to my private property - as to which you are well aware to what an extent it has been crippled, scattered, and plundered - I am in great difficulties, and stand in need, not so much of your means (which I look upon as my own), as of your advice for collecting and restoring to a sound state the fragments that remain."
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… nothing was ever so scandalous, so disgraceful, and so
objectionable to every rank and class of men young or old as this present state
of affairs, far more so than I expected, nay, upon my soul it is more so than I
could wish. The popular party have taught even the moderate men hiss. Bibulus
is exalted to the sky, though I don’t know why. However he is as much bepraised
as though “His wise delay alone did save the State.”
To my infinite sorrow, my pet, Pompey, has shattered his own reputation. They have no hold on anyone by affection: and I am afraid they might may find it necessary to try the effect of fear. I do not quarrel with them on account of my friendship for him, though I refrain from showing approval not to stultify all my previous actions. I keep to the high-road. The popular feeling can be seen best in the theatre and at public exhibitions. For at the gladiatorial show both leaders and his associates were overwhelmed with hisses: at the games in honour of Apollo the actor Diphilus made an impertinent attack on Pompey, “by our misfortunes thou art Great,” which was encored again and again. “A time will come when thou wilt rue that might” he declaimed amid the cheers of the whole audience, and so on with the rest. For indeed the verses do look as though they had been written for the occasion by an enemy of Pompey: “If either law nor custom can constrain,” etc., was received with a tremendous uproar and outcry. At Caesar’s entry the applause dwindled away: but young Curio, who followed, was applauded as Pompey used to be when the constitution was still sound. Caesar was much annoyed: and it is said a letter flew post haste to Pompey at Capua. They are annoyed with the knights who stood up and clapped Curio, and their hand is against every man’s. They are threatening the Roscian law and even the corn law. Things are in the most disturbed condition. I used to think it would be best silently to ignore their doings, but I am afraid that will be impossible. The public cannot put up with things, and yet it looks as though they would have to put up with them. The whole people speak now with one voice, but the unanimity has no foundation but common hate… |
Cicero,
Letters to Atticus, 2.19
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As Caesar saw that he would be away from home a long time,
and that envy would be greater in proportion to the greatness of the benefits
conferred, he gave his daughter in marriage to Pompey, although she was
betrothed to Caepio, because he feared that even a friend might become envious
of his great success. He also promoted the boldest of his partisan to the
principal offices for the ensuing year. He designated his friend Aulus Gabinius
as consul, with Lucius Piso as his colleague, whose daughter, Calpurnia, Caesar
married, although Cato cried out that the empire was become a mere matrimonial
agency. For tribunes he chose Vatinius and Clodius Pulcher, although the latter
had been suspected of an intrigue with the wife of Caesar himself during a
religious ceremony of women. Caesar, however, did not bring him to trail owing
to his popularity with the masses, but divorced his wife. Others prosecuted
Clodius for impiety at the sacred rites, and cicero was the counsel for the
prosecution. When Caesar was called as a witness he refused to testify against
Clodius, but even raised him to the tribuneship as a foil to Cicero, who was
already decrying the triumvirate as tending towards monarchy. Thus Caesar
turned a private grievance to useful account and benefited one enemy in order
to revenge himself on another. It appears, however, that Clodius had previously
requited Caesar by helping him to secure the governorship of Gaul.
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Appian, Civil Wars, 2.14
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